COURSE OUTCOMES AND COMPETENCIES:

1. Describe the structure and function of the skeletal, muscular, and integumentary systems at the various levels and describe bone development, growth, and repair.
   1. List and describe at least five general functions of the skin, and give one or more specific examples of each.
   2. List and describe the major and minor sub-layers of the skin, the tissues and structures present within each layer/sub-layer, and the structure of skin appendages (nails and hair).
   3. State at least five functions of the skeletal system.
   4. Describe the functional properties of each of the three types of cartilage tissue and where each of these major cartilage types occurs in the adult skeleton.
   5. Define the four types of bones based on shape and give examples of each.
   6. Describe the structure of long bones as well as the histology of compact bone.
   7. Describe the chemical composition of bone, the types of cells found in bone, and the respective function of each type of bone cell.
   8. Compare and contrast intramembranous and endochondral ossification.
   9. Name and describe the two types of growth which occur in long bones.
   10. Describe bone formation and reabsorption as homeostatic mechanisms for balancing plasma calcium ion concentrations.
   11. Identify the bones, markings, sutures, sinuses, and fontanels as assigned in lecture and lab.
   12. Identify the subdivisions of the spinal column and distinguish between primary and secondary curvatures.
   13. Identify and describe the three major structural categories and the three major functional categories of skeletal joints.
   14. Describe the general structure of synovial joints.
   15. Recognize the types of movements which occur at synovial joints.
   16. Describe the general functions of the muscular system.
   17. Name and describe the three types of muscle tissue relative to the function, histology, and locations of each in the human body.
   18. Describe the structure of an entire skeletal muscle from the level of the subcellular structures to the whole muscle.
   19. Describe the physiology of contraction in skeletal muscle at the fiber (cellular) level, and understand the roles of acetylcholine and acetylcholinesterase.
   20. Explain the significance of the 'motor unit' and the 'all-or-none' principle as related to contraction of muscle fibers.
   21. Describe muscle contractions resulting from differing strengths and frequencies of stimuli to illustrate: simple twitch, summation, tetanus, treppe, and tonus.
   22. Describe the metabolic aspects of energy mechanisms which support muscle contraction (glycolysis, Kreb's cycle, electron transport).
   23. Compare and contrast skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle tissue relative to tissue and cellular organization and differences in their rates, forces, and durations of contractions.
   24. Identify the connective tissue elements which bind bone to bone and muscle to bone.
   25. Recognize the three types of skeletal muscle fibers, emphasizing differences and similarities in force and rate of contraction, preferred cellular respiration, related structures, and stored materials.
   26. Identify the muscles, origins, insertions, and actions as assigned in the laboratory.
2. Describe the organization, structure, and function of the nervous system at the various levels and how it is integrated with the other organ systems and the body as a whole.
   1. Describe and relate the basic functions of the nervous system.
   2. Recognize and describe the structural and functional divisions of the nervous system.
   3. Name and describe the three types of neurons based on structure and the three types of neurons based on function.
   4. Describe the different types of neuroglial cells and cite their functions.
   5. Explain the importance of the myelin sheath and how it is formed in the PNS and the CNS.
   6. Distinguish between ganglia and nuclei and between a nerve and a projection tract.
   7. Define resting potential, graded (local) potential, and action potential.
   8. Diagram an action potential and explain its features.
   9. Explain how action potentials are generated and propagated along neurons.
   10. Define saltatory conduction and contrast it with continuous conduction.
   11. Distinguish between absolute and relative refractory periods.
   12. Describe the structure of the synapse and explain the process of synaptic transmission.
   13. Distinguish between excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials.
   14. Define 'neurotransmitter' and give several examples.
   15. Explain the difference between spatial and temporal summation (of local potentials).
   16. Describe these major brain parts: medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain, cerebellum, cerebrum, diencephalon, thalamus, hypothalamus, corpus callosum, pineal body, corpora quadrigemina, and hypophysis.
   17. Describe the production and flow of cerebrospinal fluid.
   18. Distinguish among commissural, association, and projection tracts.
   19. Recognize the gross and microscopic structure of the spinal cord.
   20. When presented with the name of a major spinal cord tract, classify it as sensory or motor and identify its origin and termination.
   21. Describe the structure of the cerebrum including the central sulcus, longitudinal fissure, temporal fissure, transverse fissure, precentral gyrus and postcentral gyrus.
   22. Describe the location of the general functional regions of the cerebrum and describe the role of each region.
   23. Discuss the locations and functions of the thalamus, hypothalamus, and corpus callosum.
   24. Describe the meningeal layers of the brain and spinal cord.
   25. Trace motor and sensory pathways between appropriate cerebral cortical regions based on the homunculus, and explain what is meant by 'decussation'.
   26. Describe the general structure of peripheral nerves.
   27. Explain why it is more likely that peripheral nerve damage will be repaired than damage within the CNS.
   28. List the twelve cranial nerves by number, name and distribution/function.
   29. Relate the structure of spinal nerves and the spinal cord using the following terms: dorsal root, dorsal root ganglion, dorsal ramus, ventral root, and ventral ramus.
   30. Name the four plexuses of the PNS, and identify the spinal nerves that intertwine to form each plexus and a major peripheral nerve that emerges from each plexus (but include four major peripheral nerves that emerge from the brachial plexus).
   31. Describe the reflex arc and distinguish between ipsilateral and contralateral reflex arcs.
   32. Compare and contrast the somatic and autonomic nervous systems relative to effectors, efferent pathways, and neurotransmitters released.
   33. Compare the functions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems and note, in particular, the effects of these two divisions on the heart and gastrointestinal tract.
   34. Describe the site of origin within the CNS, locations of ganglia, and general fiber pathways of the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system.
   35. Describe the sympathetic chain, collateral ganglia, and terminal ganglia.
   36. Describe the pathways which conduct impulses from the spinal nerves to the autonomic pathways of the sympathetic nervous system.
   37. Define cholinergic and adrenergic fibers and list the different types of cholinergic and adrenergic receptors.
   38. Explain the phenomenon of 'referred pain'.
   39. Classify the types of sensory receptors in the body based upon their locations and/or functions (e.g., cutaneous, visual, auditory, etc.) or the type of energy that stimulates a receptor (e.g., photoreceptor, mechanoreceptor, chemoreceptor).
   40. Describe functional anatomy of the eye as revealed by a cow eye dissection &/or inspection of a human eye model by identifying the tunics (coats), segments/chambers, muscles, accessory structures, & other features as listed for the eye in lab packet.
   41. Describe the functional anatomy of the ear by identifying the parts (regions and specific structures) listed for the ear in the Lab Packet and by stating the function of each part.
3. Describe the structure and function of the endocrine system, its glands and hormones, target tissues and effects, and integration of the endocrine system with other organs and the body as a whole.
   1. Define 'endocrine gland' and locate and identify the major endocrine glands of the body.
   2. Explain the basics of hormone chemistry and action, including chemical makeup, second messengers, direct gene activation, and hormone-release factors which are hormonal, humoral, or neural.
   3. Identify the sources of hormones secreted by the anterior and posterior pituitary gland and their relationship to the hypophyseal portal system.
   4. Explain the relationship between the nervous system and endocrine system with particular emphasis on the relationship of the hypothalamus with the pituitary.
   5. List all hormone secretions by each major endocrine gland (or part of gland), hormone target tissue(s) and effect, as well as the mechanism for regulating each hormone's release.
   6. Given a physiological imbalance, correctly identify the gland(s), hormone(s) and effect(s) which would correct the imbalance, and relate the mechanism or process to homeostasis.
   7. Describe the anatomy of a testis, noting the parts for sperm and hormone production, mechanisms regulating their production, the effects of testosterone, and stages of spermatogenesis.
   8. Describe the anatomy of an ovary, noting the parts for egg and hormone production, mechanisms regulating their production, the effects of estrogen and progesterone, and stages of oogenesis.
   9. Discuss the hormonal interactions which control the menstrual (uterine) and ovarian cycles.
   10. Describe the ovarian cycle and relate it to the ebb and flow of endocrine secretions.
   11. Recognize the histology of selected endocrine glands in lab and know which hormones are secreted by various histological regions of each gland.
4. Describe the structure and function of the cardiovascular, lymphatic, and respiratory systems at the various levels and their integration with the other organ systems and to the body as a whole.
   1. List the functions of blood.
   2. Describe the composition of whole blood.
   3. Discuss the composition and functions of plasma, including as a part of the discussion the role various dissolved solutes (proteins, nutrients, electrolytes, respiratory gases, etc.) play in plasma.
   4. Identify the seven major formed elements of blood and for each, state its source, its relative abundance in normal blood and its function.
   5. Distinguish between antigens (agglutinogens) and antibodies (agglutinins).
   6. Be familiar with antigen/antibody distribution for the ABO and Rh blood groups, and when given the ABO-Rh genotype of parents, describe the genotype and phenotype of the potential offspring.
   7. Describe the endocrine cycle which is responsible for maintaining appropriate levels of erythrocytes.
   8. Contrast intrinsic and extrinsic coagulation.
   9. Describe the conditions contributing to hemolytic disease of the unborn (erythroblastosis fetalis).
   10. Describe the location of the heart.
   11. Describe the route of blood flow through the heart, listing the blood vessels that enter and leave the heart, and the chambers and valves which are part of the heart.
   12. Describe coronary circulation by explaining how oxygenated blood is distributed to the right and left ventricles and how the blood eventually rejoins systemic venous blood.
   13. Describe the structure of the heart wall and pericardium.
   14. Describe how cardiac muscle tissue is specially adapted for the pumping action it performs.
   15. Recognize the electrical conduction system of the heart by relating the locations and roles of the following: SA node, AV node, bundle of His, right and left bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers.
   16. Explain how the structures described in the previous competency (3o) relate to the ECG pattern of a normal, healthy heart.
   17. Explain how the action potential of cardiac muscle differs from the action potential of skeletal muscle.
   18. Describe the events of the cardiac cycle.
   19. Name and explain the effects of various factors regulating stroke volume and heart rate.
   20. Describe the three layers that typically form the wall of a blood vessel, and state the function of each.
   21. Define vasoconstriction and vasodilation.
   22. Describe how arteries, veins and capillaries differ in structure and function.
   23. Name the major factors which control movement of materials into and out of the blood within capillary beds.
   24. Given a set of capillary dynamics, determine which direction there is net movement of materials.
   25. Identify the major arteries and veins assigned and know what organs or body regions are served by these arteries and veins.
   26. List and explain the factors that influence blood pressure, and describe how blood pressure is regulated.
   27. Clearly distinguish among systemic, pulmonary, and coronary routes of circulation.
   28. Describe how fetal circulation differs from postnatal circulation.
   29. Describe the general organization of the lymphatic system and define its major functions within the body.
   30. Describe the structural characteristics of lymphatic vessels.
   31. Describe the structure of lymph nodes and relate their distribution in the body to one of their functions.
   32. Describe the composition of lymph.
   33. Explain how tissue fluid gathered from capillary beds as lymph is returned to the cardiovascular system.
   34. Describe the general anatomy of the respiratory system, including the names of specific body cavities, specific organs, serous membranes, various air passageways, and related structures.
   35. Describe the cellular organization and structure of alveoli using the following terms: Type I and Type II cells, alveolar pores, macrophages, elastic fibers, and pulmonary capillaries.
   36. Describe the functions of the respiratory system at the following levels: pulmonary ventilation, external respiration, transport of respiratory gases, and internal respiration.
   37. Describe the neural controls of respiration.
   38. Differentiate and relate the following: Total lung volume, tidal volume, vital capacity, inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumes, residual volume, conducting zone, and respiratory zone.
5. Describe the structure and function of the digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems at the various levels and their integration with the other organ systems and to the body as a whole.
   1. Describe the function of the digestive system, and differentiate between organs of the alimentary canal and accessory digestive organs.
   2. List and define the major processes occurring during digestive system activity, including ingestion, propulsion, mechanical digestion, chemical digestion, absorption and defecation (elimination).
   3. Describe the tissue composition and the general function of each of the four layers of the alimentary canal wall.
   4. Describe the composition and functions of saliva.
   5. Relate the structure and function of the following: oral cavity, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestine, liver, gall bladder and bile ducts, pancreas, and anus.
   6. Describe the major structures associated with the urinary system and point out their locations in the body.
   7. Describe the gross anatomy and histology of the major urinary organs, including the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and male and female urethrae.
   8. Diagram and label all tubular and vascular component parts of a nephron showing their spatial relationships.
   9. Describe the processes involved in urine formation: glomerular filtration, selective reabsorption, and tubular secretion (tubular excretion).
   10. Explain how effective filtration pressure can be determined by knowledge of blood hydrostatic pressure, capsular hydrostatic pressure, and blood osmotic pressure.
   11. Describe how the following hormones relate to the kidney: renin, erythropoietin, ADH, aldosterone.
   12. Describe the neural pathways involved in micturition (urination).
   13. Summarize key principles of water and salt balance by relating the directional movement of sodium ions and water, sodium ions and chloride ions, and sodium ions and potassium ions.
   14. Identify the major water compartments of the body (intracellular and extracellular compartments) and state the approximate percentages of water held in each compartment and examples of body fluids in each compartment. Also, give the range in the percent
   15. Describe the portals of water intake & output as related to maintenance of water balance, and detail the role of neural homeostatic centers (e.g., in hypothalamus) and certain hormones in maintaining water and salt balance.
   16. Define acidosis and alkalosis as deviations from normal average blood pH of 7.4.
   17. Describe the results of extreme deviations of blood pH from this normal level and how blood pH is controlled, in particular by a combination of respiratory and renal control mechanisms.
   18. Correctly identify the major anatomical features of the male and female reproductive systems and explain the role each plays in the reproductive process.
   19. Describe the developmental sequences associated with egg and sperm formation (oogenesis and spermatogenesis).
   20. Explain the significance of meiosis as it relates to chromosome number.
   21. Outline and discuss the ovarian and uterine cycles and changes that occur with pregnancy by relating hormonal involvement and interactions, including the role of HCG.